Cardiovascular System
Anatomy
Review: The Heart. By illustrating the external and internal
heart from four different views,
this topic provides students with greater understanding of
the spatial relationships among heart structures. The overall
circulation in the body is animated.
Intrinsic Conduction System.
An animation shows the pathway of depolarization in the heart,
and ECG waves are explained. The two are then put together to
help students understand the correlation between
an ECG graph and events in the heart. The quiz includes matching
and puzzle exercises, and then students must apply their
knowledge to two clinical situations–a left bundle branch
block and tachycardia.
Cardiac Action Potential.
Using animations, this topic leads students step-by-step through
the difficult concepts of pacemaker potentials and action
potentials. Animated events in autorhythmic and contractile
cardiac cells are correlated with animated graphs of membrane
potential. The quiz questions require
students to demonstrate their understanding of membrane
potential and the roles of various ion channels.
Cardiac Cycle. An
animation of blood flow through the heart is presented, followed
by step-by-step animations and explanations of the phases of the
cardiac cycle. The blood flow animation is then correlated with
animated graphs of pressure, ventricular volume, and an ECG.
This allows students to make the connections between the graphs
and events occurring in the heart. The quiz tests student
understanding of the stages of the cardiac cycle in relation to
heart valves, blood flow, and the ECG/pressure/volume graphs.
Cardiac Output. Cardiac
output is demonstrated in a way that could only be done on
computer! Students are also asked to predict the effects of 10
different factors on heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac
output, and then give an explanation for each factor. In the
quiz, students must calculate cardiac output and relate it to
the volume of soda bottles, and demonstrate their understanding
of heart rate and stroke volume regulation.
Blood Vessel Physiology:
Anatomy Review. Blood Vessel Structure: The flow of blood is
traced through the blood vessels of the body, using animations
to demonstrate the structural and functional characteristics of
each vessel type.
Measuring Blood Pressure.
This topic illustrates what is happening in the body when blood
pressure is measured. The quiz gives students an opportunity to
try their hand at interpreting blood pressure measurement
sounds.
Factors That Affect Blood
Pressure. Animations and analogies are used to demonstrate
the factors that affect blood pressure. In the quiz, students
must identify the factors that will lower someone's blood
pressure.
Blood Pressure Regulation.
Using animations, this topic helps students understand the
complexities of short-term and long-term regulation of blood
pressure. In the quiz, students can experiment with the effects
of nerve stimulation, epinephrine, and acetylcholine. Also, they
must correctly identify the chain of events that begins when
dehydration occurs, and when blood volume and blood pressure are
increased or decreased.
Autoregulation and Capillary
Dynamics. In this topic, animations and analogies are used
to explain the control of blood flow through individual organs (autoregulation)
and the movement of solutes and fluids across capillary walls.
In the quiz, students must apply their knowledge of
autoregulation to muscle cells. Also, they must use their
understanding of capillary dynamics to predict how digested
foods and respiratory gases are transported across capillary
walls.
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Digestive
System
Anatomy
Review: Overall Function of the GI System. Discusses the
four-layered wall of the GI tract (mucuosa, submucosa,
muscularis externa, and serosa). Illustrates the anatomical
features of the GI tract and outlines their functions. The quiz
questions ask the student to identify and label structures,
complete a summary chart, match structures and functions, and
apply their understanding to a clinical problem (acid reflux).
Control
of the Digestive System. Step-by-step illustration of the phases of control of the digestive
process. Discusses the involvement of the parasympathetic,
sympathetic, and enteric nervous systems. Demonstrates the
functions of neurotransmitters and hormones in the digestive
process. In the quiz, students must demonstrate their
understanding of reflex activities of the GI tract and apply
what they've learned about neurotransmitters to clinical
problems (treatment of diarrhea and dysentery).
Motility.
Describes the actions of the muscles of the GI tract that mix
and propel its contents. Animations demonstrate peristalsis,
segmentation, migrating motility complexes, mass movements,
defecation, and vomiting. The quiz questions require students to
build a table identifying motility in the different regions of
the GI tract, create a chain of events describing defecation,
and apply their understanding of motility to clinical problems
(constipation and diarrhea).
Secretion.
Illustrates GI tract secretions (salivary, gastric, pancreatic,
liver, and intestinal) and their functions. Students travel
through each region to learn about neural and hormonal
regulation of the secretions. The quiz includes drag-and-drop
activities to identify specific secretions, and an interactive
activity to provide patient education to someone who has had a
gallbladder removed.
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Endocrine System
Endocrine System Review. Identifies
the major endocrine glands and tissues, the hormones they
produce, their target tissues, and a simple function for each
hormone.
Biochemistry, Secretion, and Transport of Hormones. Covers
the chemical classes and solubility properties of hormones, how
hormones are synthesized, and the stimuli that control hormone
secretion.
The Actions of Hormones on Target Cells. Reviews hormone
receptors, second messenger systems and transcription factors,
insulin (including a discussion of diabetes mellitus), and how
hormones induce changes in cellular metabolism.
The Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis. An overview of the anatomy
of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, a review of its endocrine
and neural control, a study of the hypophyseal portal system,
and a review of thyroid hormone (including the causes and
consequences of hypo- and hypersecretion of TH and a discussion
of Graves' disease).
Response to Stress. A discussion of stress in terms of
endocrine function, the nervous system's role in responses to
stress, and a review of epinephrine and cortisol (including a
discussion of Cushing's disease and Addison's disease).
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Fluids and Electrolytes
Introduction to Body Fluids. Describes
the roles and movements of fluids in the body, the composition
of body fluids, three fluid compartments, the roles and
compartmentalization of electrolytes, and osmosis.
Water Homeostasis. Show
how water enters and leaves the body, and what happens when
water homeostasis is disturbed. Describes the mechanisms of
water balance and how they work to maintain water homeostasis.
Electrolyte Homeostasis.
Compares the exchange of water and electrolytes between each of
the fluid compartments and discusses edema. Show how the body
regulates sodium, potassium, and calcium homeostasis.
Acid/Base Homeostasis.
Reviews principles of acids, bases, pH, and dynamic equilibrium.
Describes how the body regulates pH through respiratory and
renal controls. Show respiratory and renal acidosis and
alkalosis, with clinical examples.
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Muscular
System
Anatomy Review: Skeletal Muscle
Tissue. Compares the three types of muscle cells (skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth). Illustrates the levels of organization of
skeletal muscle tissue from a whole muscle down to the
subcellular level. The quiz questions ask the student to
complete a summary chart, label a muscle cell, match definitions
and structures, and put together a puzzle.
The Neuromuscular Junction. Shows
the anatomy of a neuromuscular junction and then illustrates,
step-by-step, the events that occur at the neuromuscular
junction. A summary animation puts all the steps together. In
the quiz, students must demonstrate their knowledge of
neuromuscular junction activity and apply what they've learned
to new situations with clinical applications (the effects of
curare, neostigmine, and nicotine).
Sliding Filament Theory.
Describes the molecules that participate in contraction,
followed by an animation of how a muscle cell contracts. The
individual steps of the sliding filament theory are then
explained, and then the full animation is shown again. The quiz
questions require students to put the events of a cross bridge
cycle in order and apply their knowledge to explain rigor
mortis.
Muscle Metabolism.
Illustrates the roles of ATP in a muscle cell and describes how
ATP is synthesized, using both traditional flowcharts and in a
more fanciful ATP "factory." Students are asked to
predict the metabolic variations in different types of muscle
fibers. The highlight of the quiz is Muscle Metabolism Mania, in
which students can take turns answering questions and earning
points.
Contraction of Motor Units.
Animations show motor units of different sizes in action. Also,
students must predict what will happen if a nerve to a muscle is
cut, and then test their hypothesis by "cutting" the
nerve to see the result. The quiz uses arcade-style games and a
basketball game to relate motor unit size to real-life
situations.
Contraction of Whole Muscle.
After introducing the concepts related to muscle stimuli, this
topic provides a lab simulation allowing the user to increase
the voltage to an isolated muscle and then see the muscle's
response, a graph of the response, and an explanation. Other
simulations are given throughout this topic, which could be used
as a supplement or substitute for a lab requiring the use of
frog leg muscles. In the quiz, cellular concepts are applied to
real-life situations.
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Nervous System I.
Anatomy Review. Describes features of
neurons, the polarization of neurons and the direction of
information flow in the cells. The quiz tests students'
understanding of the anatomy of neurons and relation of neuronal
structure to function.
Voltage Gated Ion Channels.
Continues the anatomy of neurons, but at the channel level. The
broad categories of channels, their regional location, and
unique functions are described. The quiz tests students'
understanding of the channel types and their functions.
Membrane Potential.
Develops the principles for understanding how and why ions cross
cell membranes. Students study passive channels and the chemical
and electrical forces on Na+ and K+. The quiz tests students'
understanding of the features of passive ion channels and the
forces acting to move Na+ and K+.
Action Potential.
Describes the permeability changes which bring about the action
potential at the ion channel level. Students study the operation
of voltage-gated channels, and the ionic movements that result
as these channels open and close. Study of the generation of the
action potential is followed by study of propagation of the
action potential along the axon. The quiz tests students'
understanding of the operation of voltage-gated channels, and
resulting sequential movement of Na+ and K+ across the neuronal
membrane.
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Nervous System
II.
Anatomy Review: Synapsis. This topic
begins by describing and illustrating the properties and purpose
of synapses. Students observe how neuronal stimulation from the
somatic and autonomic nervous systems affect different types of
muscles. The actions of inhibition and excitation are
demonstrated. Students learn the features of different types of
synapses, and electrical and chemical synapses are described.
The topic concludes by illustrating the presynaptic and
postsynaptic components of the chemical synapse.
Chemically Gated Ion Channels.
Provides an overview and demonstration of the properties of
passive and active ion channels. Explains and illustrates the
principles of directly-acting neurotransmitters, and students
learn which ions are involved in generating rapid excitatory or
inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Goes on to explain how
neurotransmitters can act indirectly on ion channels via second
messengers to produce slow excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic
potentials.
Synaptic Transmission.
Illustrates synaptic transmission and outcome step by step,
illustrating neurotransmitter release, diffusion, binding, and
termination. Students learn that the effect of a
neurotransmitter depends upon receptor type, and they see how
Ach affects nicotonic and muscarinic receptors in the central
and autonomic nervous systems. The excitatory effect of
glutamate, and the inhibitory effects of GABA and glycine, are
demonstrated. Illustrations of different behaviors demonstrate
the outcomes of directly-acting and indirectly-acting
neurotransmitters on synaptic activity.
Synaptic Potentials and
Cellular Integration. This topic begins by reviewing the
properties of the action potential. The differences in
characteristics between action potentials and synaptic
potentials are demonstrated by graphing their impulses. The
summation of synaptic potentials is explained, and examples of
temporal and spatial summation are illustrated. The effect of
combining inhibitory and excitatory postynaptic potentials is
demonstrated, and the topic concludes with an explanation and
behavioral example of cellular integration.
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Respiratory System
Anatomy
Review: Respiratory Structures. Using an overview diagram,
the flow of air is traced from the external nares to the lungs.
A Baboon analogy demonstrates the relationship between the
visceral and parietal pleurae. Detailed art follows the flow of
air from the bronchial tree all the way to the alveolus.
Animations illustrate the types of cells in the alveolus,
showing alveolar macrophages in action! The quizzes include
labeling exercises and a clinical question about pulmonary
edema.
Pulmonary Ventilation.
This topic first demonstrates the relationship between volume
and pressure. The movements of the thoracic cavity are
correlated with graphs and gauges showing pressure changes in
the lungs. Students are asked to predict the effect of
pneumothorax on the lungs. The topic discusses airway
resistance, and uses a baboon analogy to show lung compliance.
In the quiz, students must sequence the events of inspiration
and expiration, reinflate a lung, as well as correlate pressure
graphs with airflow.
Gas Exchange. After
introducing gas laws, this topic explains the factors affecting
gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Also, animations
illustrate the effect of gas levels on the bronchioles and
arterioles. In the quiz, students must correctly identify gas
values in the lungs and tissues, and apply their knowledge of
gas laws and gas exchange to make predictions.
Gas Transport. This topic
discusses the different forms to which oxygen and carbon dioxide
are carried in the body. The important oxygen-hemoglobin
dissociation curve is presented in a dynamic manner, and has a
predictable question to test understanding. The animations
enliven the chemistry, making the molecules more than mere
symbols. The quiz tests student knowledge with challenging
labeling and sorting exercises, as well as predictable
questions.
Control of Respiration.
This topic illustrates the underlying importance of homeostasis
in the control of respiration. Through flowcharts, the topic
walks students through the feedback loop that controls
respiration. The topic discusses the effects of hyper- and
hypoventilation. The quiz tests understanding of these concepts
by asking students to make predictions and also to manipulate
elements in the flowcharts.
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Urinary System
Anatomy Review. This topic shows the
organs of the urinary system, and the external and internal
anatomy of the kidney, including its blood supply. The nephron
is covered, including the tubular segments and the associated
blood vessels. In the renal corpuscle section, a glomerular
capillary is expanded to show the layers of the filtration
membrane, with photomicrographs for comparison and an animation
of filtration of the membrane. Finally, the key features of the
cells of each tubular segment are presented. The quizzes cover
the structures presented.
Glomerular Filtration.
This topic presents an overview of filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion. Students can analyze filtrate and then answer a
clinical question. Next, forces affecting filtration are shown
and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is introduced. An
interactive animation introduces the discussion of
autoregulation mechanisms of the GFR. The website demonstrates
sympathetic control in emergency situations. Quizzes allow
students to answer questions on concepts covered.
Early Filtrate Processing.
This topic covers reabsorption and secretion. It starts with an
analogy for reabsorption, and presents animations. Then it moves
through the tubular segments, presenting animations of the
movement of molecules through the luminal and basolateral
membranes of each, differentiating between diffusion, primary
active transport, and secondary active transport throughout.
Then it shows how the countercurrent multiplier mechanism
produces the medullary osmotic gradient. The extensive quiz
questions include tubular permeability, predicting the effects
of a diuretic drug, and a game called membrane transport trivia
that can be played by two students.
Late Filtrate Processing.
This topic covers reabsorption and secretion from the late DCT
to the medullary collecting duct. First presented are the
effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone on filtrate
processing in the late DCT and cortical collecting duct. The
medullary osmotic gradient is reviewed, followed by changes in
filtrate osmolarity as it moves through the gradient, leading to
the discussion of final urine concentration. Finally, final
urine volume is covered. Quizzes ask students to answer
questions on the activities of various tubular regions, predict
the effects of dehydration, and let students analyze various
urine samples.
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